State of Emergency on Childhood Trauma

Author(s): Ronald A. Hummons

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2. George W Holden Children Exposed to Domestic Violence and Child Abuse: Terminology and Taxonomy, 6 CLINICAL CHILD & FAM PSYCH. REV, volume 151 Posted: 2003
3. Sandra A Graham-Bermann & Victoria, Gender Brescoll Power and Violence: Assessing the Family Stereotypes of the Children of Batterers, 14 J. FAM. PSYCH, volume 600 Posted: 2000
4. & Graham-Bermann, Brescoll Crossref
5. Holt Crossref
6. E G See, K Daniel O'leary Multivariate Models of Men's and Women's Partner Aggression
7. J. CONSULTING & CLINICAL PSYCH, volume 752 Posted: 2007 Crossref
8. Christine Wekerle, & David, A Wolfe Dating Violence in Mid-Adolescence: Theory, Significance, and Emerging Prevention Initiatives, 19 CLINICAL PSYCH REV, volume 435 Posted: 1999 Crossref
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10. & Margolin, Gordis
11. Gayla Margolin Effects of Domestic Violence on Children VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN IN THE FAMILY AND THE COMMUNITY 57 Posted: 1998 Crossref
12. Holt Crossref
13. Katherine M Kitzmann Child Witnesses to Domestic Violence: A Meta-Analytic Review, volume 71 Crossref
14. Consulting & Clinical, Psych , volume 339 Posted: 2003 Crossref
15. Mcintosh & Margolin, Gordis Holt Although more current population estimates exist, no significant change in the number children under the age of eighteen was noted since 802. 138. Calculation based on official 2010 census data from Lindsay M. Howden & Julie A. Meyer, Age and Sex Composition: 2010, in 2010 CENSUS BRIEFS Posted: 2010
16. A L Martin Et Crossref
17. A L Listenbee , p. 32 – 33 Crossref
18. Patrick T Davies A Process Analysis of the Transmission of Distress from Interparental Conflict to Parenting: Adult Relationship Security as an Explanatory Mechanism, p. 1769 – 70 Posted: 2009 Crossref
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22. Richard Thompson Mothers' Violence Victimization and Child Behavior Problems: Examining the Link, 77 AM. J. ORTHOPSYCHIATRY, volume 306 Posted: 2007 Crossref
23. A L Listenbee, volume 2 Crossref
24. Carol Coohey Battered Mothers Who Physically Abuse Their Children J. INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE, volume 943, p. 950 – 51 Posted: 2004 Crossref
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27. Joy D Osofsky The Impact of Violence on Children, 9 DOMESTIC VIOLENCE & CHILD, volume 33, p. 40 - 41
28. Kihyun Kim Childhood Experiences of Sexual Abuse and Later Parenting Practices Among NonOffending Mothers of Sexually Abused and Comparison Girls 34 CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT, volume 610 Posted: 2010 Crossref
29. Eli Buchbinder Motherhood of Battered Women: The Struggle for Repairing the Past SOC. WORK J, volume 32 Posted: 2004 Crossref
30. A Alytia, Levendosky, A Sandra, Graham-Bermann Parenting in Battered Women: The Effects of Domestic Violence on Women and Their Children, 16 J. FAM. VIOLENCE, volume 171 Posted: 2001
31. Mcintosh Crossref
32. Melanie Marysko History of Childhood Abuse Is Accompanied by Increased Dissociation in Young Mothers Five Months Postnatally 43 PSYCHOPATHOLOGY, volume 104 Posted: 2010 Crossref
33. George W Holden Children Exposed to Domestic Violence and Child Abuse: Terminology and Taxonomy, 6 CLINICAL CHILD & FAM PSYCH. REV, volume 151 Posted: 2003
34. A Alytia, Levendosky, A Sandra, Graham-Bermann The Moderating Effects of Parenting Stress on Children's Adjustment in Woman-Abusing Families, 13 J. FAM. VIOLENCE, volume 383 Posted: 1998
35. Jeffrey L Edleson Children's Witnessing of Adult Domestic Violence J. INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE, volume 839 Posted: 1999 Crossref
36. Holt , p. 800 - 801Crossref
37. A Alytia, Levendosky The Impact of Domestic Violence on the Maternal-Child Relationship and Preschool-Age Children's Functioning, 17 See generally HEDY CLEAVER ET AL., CHILDREN'S NEEDS-PARENTING CAPACITY: THE IMPACT OF PARENTAL MENTAL ILLNESS, PROBLEM ALCOHOL AND DRUG USE, AND DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ON CHILDREN'S DEVELOPMENT, volume 275, p. 284 – 85 Posted: 1999
38. A Alytia, Levendosky
39. Mothers' Perceptions of the Impact of Woman Abuse on Their Parenting
40. VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN, volume 248, issue 6
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42. & Levendosky, Graham-Bermann , p. 184 – 85 Crossref
43. See Jaffee Crossref
44. & Currie, Widom
45. A L Groves Et , volume 37, p. 4 – 6 Crossref
46. Jaffee , volume 88, p. 231 – 263 Crossref
47. Inst, Med, Nat'l Rsch, Council Crossref
48. Holt , p. 802 – 807 Crossref
49. Carter Crossref
50. A L Listenbee, Nicole L See, Vu Children's Exposure to Intimate Partner Violence: A Meta-Analysis of Longitudinal Associations with Child Adjustment Problems, 46 CLINICAL PSYCH REV, volume 25, issue 2 Posted: 2016
51. Megan R Holmes The Sleeper Effect of Intimate Partner Violence Exposure: Long-Term Consequences on Young Children's Aggressive Behavior, 54 J. CHILD PSYCH. & PSYCHIATRY, volume 986 Posted: 2013 Crossref
52. A L Listenbee As a result, the effect sizes discussed in the text are still presented in odds form. For most of the outcomes discussed herein, the odds ratio serves as a relatively close proximation of the RR, as the prevalence of these outcomes in the population is small (<10%). Yet, a few of the outcomes, such as the criminal justice outcomes, are more prevalent, and therefore the odds ratio proximation is less accurate and could be somewhat inflated. Nevertheless
53. Laura Bevilacqua Interaction Between FKBP5 and Childhood Trauma and Risk of Aggressive Behavior, 69 ARCHIVES GEN PSYCHIATRY, volume 62 Posted: 2012
54. Sunny H Shin Exposure to Childhood Neglect and Physical Abuse and Developmental Trajectories of Heavy Episodic Drinking from Early Adolescence into Young Adulthood, 127 DRUG & ALCOHOL DEPENDENCE, volume 31 Posted: 2013 Crossref
55. Shi Huang The Long-Term Effects of Childhood Maltreatment Experiences on Subsequent Illicit Drug Use And Drug-Related Problems in Young Adulthood ADDICTIVE BEHAVIORS, volume 36 Posted: 2011 Crossref
56. Sjoukje Berdina Beike De, Boer Childhood Characteristics of Adolescent Inpatients with Early-Onset and Adolescent-Onset Disruptive Behavior J. PSYCHOPATHOLOGY & BEHAV. ASSESSMENT, volume 34 Posted: 2012
57. Sophie Boivin Past Victimizations and Dating Violence Perpetration In Adolescence: The Mediating Role Of Emotional Distress and Hostility J. INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE, volume 27 Posted: 2012
58. Eleni Maneta Links Between Childhood Physical Abuse and Intimate Partner Aggression: The Mediating Role of Anger Expression, 27 VIOLENCE & VICTIMS, volume 315 Posted: 2012 Crossref
59. Deborah J Jones Linking Childhood Sexual Abuse and Early Adolescent Risk Behavior: The Intervening Role of Internalizing and Externalizing Problems 41 J. ABNORMAL CHILD PSYCH, volume 139 Posted: 2013 Crossref
60. Christina S Meade Methamphetamine Use is Associated with Childhood Sexual Abuse and HIV Sexual Risk Behaviors Among Patrons of Alcohol-Serving Venues in Cape Town, South Africa, 126 DRUG & ALCOHOL DEPENDENCE, volume 232 Posted: 2012 Crossref
61. B Bryndis, Asgeirsdottir Associations Between Sexual Abuse and Family Conflict/Violence, Self-Injurious Behavior, and Substance Use: The Mediating Role of Depressed Mood and Anger CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT, volume 35 Posted: 2011
62. & Wilson, Widom
63. Helen W Wilson & Cathy Spatz Widom ; Marilyn, Metzler The Role of Youth Problem Behaviors in the Path from Child Abuse and Neglect to 201 CHILD. & YOUTH SERVS. REV, volume 72 Posted: 2017
64. Chalfin Crossref
65. See Ted, R Miller AIER") Cost of Living Calculator. Cost of Living Calculator: What is Your Dollar Worth Today? AM. INST. ECON. RSCH, p. 12 – 13 Posted: 1996-11-27
66. Priscillia Hunt The Price of Justice: New National and State-Level Estimates of the Judicial and Legal Costs of Crime to Taxpayers, 42 AM J. CRIM. JUST, volume 321 Posted: 2017 Crossref
67. Kathryn E Mccollister The Cost of Crime to Society: New Crime-Specific Estimates for Policy and Program Evaluation, 108 DRUG & ALCOHOL DEPENDENCE, volume 98 Posted: 2010 Crossref
68. Id Adjusted to 2017 dollars, using the AIER Cost of Living Calculator, volume 104
69. Will Dobbie The Effects of Pretrial Detention on Conviction, Future Crime, and Employment: Evidence from Randomly Assigned Judges AM. ECON. REV, volume 201 Posted: 2018 Crossref
70. Chris Mai, & Ram Subramanian, ; Just Vera Inst Adjusted to 2017 dollars, using the AIER Cost of Living Calculator. 209. JUST. POL'Y INST. STICKER SHOCK: CALCULATING THE FULL PRICE TAG FOR YOUTH INCARCERATION The Price of Prisons: Examining State Spending Trends, volume 27, p. 2010 – 2025 Posted: 2014
71. Ellen E Bouchery Economic Costs of Excessive Alcohol Consumption in the AM. J. PREVENTIVE MED Posted: 2006 Crossref
72. Jeffrey J Sacks National and State Costs of Excessive Alcohol Consumption, 49 AM J. PREVENTIVE MED Posted: 2010 Crossref
73. Cora See, Peterson Have you ever used street drugs?" 250. Calculated based on the findings of Felitti, supra note 233, at 253 tbl.5. 251. Calculation based on the findings of Cora Peterson et al., Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among U.S. Adults, supra note 109 Posted: 2011
74. Dep't Health & Human, Servs, Substance, Mental, Servs, Admin, Off, Studies, Results From Posted: 2008 Crossref
75. Cora See, Peterson Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among U.S. Adults, supra note 107
76. Dep't Health & Hum, Servs and is based on BRFSS data. 255. Calculation based on the findings of Peterson et al., Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among U.S. Adults, supra note 107, volume 253, p.15 – 29 Posted: 2004
77. Putnam Crossref
78. Ronald C Kessler Childhood Adversities and Adult Psychopathology in the WHO World Mental Health Surveys BRIT. J. PSYCHIATRY, volume 378, p. 378 – 79 Posted: 2010 Crossref
79. ; Margolin & Gordis, Listenbee, Al , volume 445, p. 30 - 32
80. G F M Jacqueline, Hovens Impact of Childhood Life Events and Trauma on the Course of Depressive and Anxiety Disorders ACTA PSYCHIATRICA SCANDINAVICA, volume 126 Posted: 2012
81. Sara Larsson High Prevalence of Childhood Trauma in Patients with Schizophrenia Spectrum and Affective Disorder COMPREHENSIVE PSYCHIATRY, volume 54 Posted: 2013 Crossref
82. Anna Plaza Childhood Physical Abuse as a Common Risk Factor for Depression and Thyroid Dysfunction in the Earlier Postpartum PSYCHIATRY RSCH, volume 329 Posted: 2012 Crossref
83. Saaniya Bedi Risk for Suicidal Thoughts and Behavior After Childhood Sexual Abuse in Women and Men, 41 SUICIDE & LIFE-THREATENING BEHAV, volume 406 Posted: 2011 Crossref
84. Laura P Chen Sexual Abuse and Lifetime Diagnosis of Psychiatric Disorders: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis, 85 MAYO CLINIC PROC, volume 618 Posted: 2010 Crossref
85. Tracie O Afifi Population Attributable Fractions of Psychiatric Disorders and Suicide Ideation and Attempts Associated with Adverse Childhood Experiences, 98 AM J. PUB. HEALTH, volume 946 Posted: 2008 Crossref
86. Sarah Jonas Sexual Abuse and Psychiatric Disorder in England: Results from the 2007 Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey PSYCH. MED, volume 709 Posted: 2011 Crossref
87. Luisa Sugaya Child Physical Abuse and Adult Mental Health: A National Study 25 J. TRAUMATIC STRESS, volume 384 Posted: 2012 Crossref
88. Scott E Hadland Suicide and History of Childhood Trauma Among Street Youth 136 J. AFFECTIVE DISORDERS, volume 377, p. 377 – 78 Posted: 2012 Crossref
89. B Wanner Childhood Trajectories of Anxiousness and Disruptiveness Explain the Association Between Early-Life Adversity and Attempted Suicide, 42 PSYCH. MED. 2373
90. Posted: 2012
91. Crossref
92. Mette Ystgaard
93. Is There a Specific Relationship Between Childhood Sexual and Physical Abuse and Repeated Suicidal Behavior? 28
94. CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT, volume 863
95. Posted: 2004
96. Crossref
97. Paul Rohde
98. Associations of Child Sexual and Physical Abuse with Obesity and Depression in Middle-Aged Women
99. CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT, volume 32
100. Posted: 2008
101. Crossref
102. Lena Sanci
103. Childhood Sexual Abuse and Eating Disorders in Females: Findings From the Victorian Adolescent Health Cohort Study, 162 ARCHIVES OF PEDIATRIC & ADOLESCENT MED, volume 261
104. Posted: 2008
105. Jacqueline C Carter
106. The Impact of Childhood Sexual Abuse in Anorexia Nervosa
107. 30 CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT, volume 257, p. 257 - 58
108. Posted: 2006
109. Crossref
110. Jennie G Noll
111. Sleep Disturbances and Childhood Sexual Abuse, 31
112. J. PEDIATRIC PSYCH, volume 469
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114. Crossref
115. Annmarie C Hulette
116. Dissociation in Middle Childhood Among Foster Children with Early Maltreatment Experiences
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119. Crossref
120. Terri L Messman-Moore
121. Emotion Dysregulation and Risky Sexual Behavior in Revictimization
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126. supra note 2, at 29-30, 211. 259. Id. at 12; Vu et al., supra note 191
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129. Anda
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132. See Laurel Davis & Rebecca, J Shlafer
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135. Posted: 2017
136. Have you had or do you now have depression or feel down in the dumps?" 281. Anda et al., supra note 224, at 177-78 tbl.2. 282. Calculation based on the findings of Peterson
137. Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults
138. Felitti
139. Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107, at 693-95 tbl.1; Number of Deaths and Estimated Average and Total Lifetime Costs
140. CTRS. FOR DISEASE CONTROL & PREVENTION
141. Posted: 2010-11-27
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162. REV, volume 647
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164. Crossref
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166. , volume 233
167. Crossref
168. Felitti
169. Crossref
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171. Calculated as the average costs of treatment during the four years following diagnosis, based on the three most common types of cancer (lung, breast, and colorectal), volume 4
172. Posted: 2017
173. Felitti
174. Estimate is based on the cost for the male population, as it is lower than female costs. See Jeffrey D. Miller et al., Lifetime Costs and Impact on Life Expectancy of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) in the
175. Projections from a Decision-Analytic Model, 9 VALUE IN HEALTH A93
176. Posted: 2006
177. Felitti
178. supra note 233, at 255 tbl.8. 303. Calculated using Data & Statistics (WISQARS™): Cost of Injury Reports
179. CTRS. FOR DISEASE CONTROL & PREVENTION
180. Posted: 2020-11-27
181. Although the original ACE study found diabetes to have a non-significant effect for children exposed to 1 ACE, and more recent study with a much larger sample found a statistically significant effect under the 1-3 ACE category. See Felitti et al., supra note 233, at 250. Thus, we have opted to include diabetes in the analysis. 305. Gilbert et al., supra note 105, at 348 tbl.2. 306. Calculated as the average lifetime medical costs of treating type 2 diabetes. See Xiaohui Zhuo et al., Lifetime Direct Medical Costs of Treating Type 2 Diabetes and Diabetic Complications, 45
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183. Posted: 2013
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185. Including heart attack or use of nitroglycerin for exertional chest pain
186. Gilbert
187. supra note 105, at 348 tbl.2. 309. Calculated as the average cost of a single hospital stay for the treatment of Myocardial Infraction in
188. See Celeste, M Torio & Brian, J Moore
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193. at 348 tbl.2. 311. Reflects the lifetime cost of asthma treatment, including outpatient and inpatient medical care, and prescribed medications
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197. Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107, at 694 tbl.1. 312. Felitti et al., supra note 233, at 253 tbl. 5. 313. Calculated as the average total cost per year of the 8 most common STIs. See Harrell W. Chesson et al., The Estimated Direct Medical Cost of Sexually Transmitted Diseases Among American Youth
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430. Adverse Childhood Experiences: Are They Risk Factors for Adult Homelessness?, 87 AM
431. J. PUB. HEALTH, volume 249
432. Posted: 1997
433. Crossref
434. & Mears, Siennick
435. Crossref
436. & Macmillan, Hagan
437. ; Zielinski, Liu
438. Crossref
439. Xiangming Fang
440. The Economic Burden of Child Maltreatment in the United States and Implications for Prevention
441. CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT, volume 36
442. Posted: 2012
443. Crossref
444. See Zielinski
445. Crossref
446. & Macmillan, Hagan
447. Rose
448. Including Public Assistance, Supplemental Security Income, and Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program. Ann C. Foster & Arcenis Rojas, Program Participation and Spending Patterns of Families Receiving Government Means-Tested Assistance, MONTHLY LAB. REV, volume 348
449. Posted: 2018-01
450. ANNUAL STATISTICAL REPORT ON THE SOCIAL SECURITY DISABILITY INSURANCE PROGRAM 2017 58, volume 61
451. Posted: 2014
452. Crossref
453. Fang et al., supra note 341, at 159. 350. See id. 351. See infra Table 10. 352. Calculated based on the 2019 GDP of the United Stated
454. comparison to those unexposed, and therefore applies to total number of affected individuals in the cohort. See
455. Posted: 2020-11-27
456. Criminal Justice $, volume 7
457. Crossref
458. $33,019, volume 906
459. Crossref
460. 122) $131 (79,172) $19,671
461. Mental Health $, volume 7, issue 4
462. $9, volume 772
463. Crossref
464. Total $, volume 194, issue 182
465. Crossref
466. See infra Table 11
467. See Megan, R Holmes
468. Economic Burden of Child Exposure to Intimate Partner Violence in the United States, 33
469. J. FAM. VIOLENCE, volume 239
470. Posted: 2018
471. Fang
472. Crossref
473. Cora Peterson
474. The Economic Burden of Child Maltreatment in the United States
475. CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT, volume 86
476. Posted: 2015
477. Crossref
478. Peterson
479. Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107, at 692. 357. See Fang et al., supra note 341, at 159; Peterson et al., supra note 355, p. 179 - 80
480. Peterson
481. Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107, at 692. 359. See Fang et al., supra note 341
482. Peterson
483. Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107
484. Crossref
485. E G See, Health Org
486. WORLD REPORT ON VIOLENCE AND HEALTH, p. 149 - 81
487. Posted: 2002
488. Peterson
489. Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107, at 697. 366. See id. at 691-97. 367. Id. at 692. 368. See supra Section II.A. 369. Peterson et al., supra note 354, at 181. 370. Id. 371. Id. at 181, 183
490. UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LAW REVIEW, volume 2021
491. See Fang
492. Crossref
493. See Peterson
494. Crossref
495. See Holmes
496. Crossref
497. Peterson
498. Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107
499. Crossref
500. Josh Bivens, ; Econ, Pol'y Inst
501. Public Investment: The Next 'New Thing' for Powering Economic Growth, volume 1, p. 12 - 13
502. Posted: 2012-04-28
503. American States Face a Revenue Crisis
504. ECONOMIST
505. Posted: 2018-04-17
506. Elizabeth Mcnichol & Samantha Waxman
507. States Faced Revenue Shortfalls in 2017 Despite Growing Economy
508. Crossref
509. Budget & Pol'y Priorities ; Nat'l Ass'n Of, St
510. Summary: Fall 2017 Fiscal Survey of States
511. BUDGET OFFICERS
512. Posted: 2017-10
513. Bivens, supra note 376, at 5 (arguing that increased investment in public goods provides substantial future returns)
514. German Lopez
515. States Have Steadily Cut Prison Populations Since 2010-Without Increases in Crime, VOX, volume 12
516. Posted: 2017-01-03
517. James Austin
518. How Many Americans Are Unnecessarily Incarcerated?
519. Posted: 2016
520. Crossref
521. Abrams
522. Crossref
523. John H Esperian
524. The Effect of Prison Education Programs on Recidivism, 61
525. J. CORRECTIONAL EDUC, volume 316
526. Posted: 2010
527. Grant Duwe
528. An Outcome Evaluation of a Prison Work Release Program Estimating Its Effects on Recidivism, Employment, and Cost Avoidance
529. CRIM. JUST. POL'Y REV, volume 531, p. 548 - 597
530. Posted: 2015
531. Peter Wagner & Bernadette Rabuy
532. Following the Money of Mass Incarceration, PRISON POL'Y INITIATIVE
533. Posted: 2017-01-25
534. Cross-sectional Study, logistics regression model
535. Peterson
536. Posted: 2017
537. Corso
538. Posted: 2007
539. Cost-of-illness
540. Farrell & Zimmerman
541. Mccollister
542. Crossref
543. Farrell & Zimmerman
544. Mccollister
545. Crossref
546. Whitfield
547. Peterson
548. Crossref
549. Felitti
550. Crossref
551. Peterson
552. Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults
553. Crossref
554. Felitti
555. Crossref
556. Peterson
557. Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults
558. Crossref
559. Ford
560. Crossref
561. Peterson
562. Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults
563. Crossref
564. Anda
565. Crossref
566. Peterson
567. Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults
568. Crossref
569. Anda
570. Peterson
571. Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults
572. Crossref
573. Felitti
574. Crossref
575. Peterson
576. Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults
577. Crossref
578. Corso
579. UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LAW REVIEW, volume 2021
580. Crossref
581. Felitti
582. Crossref
583. Gabriela Dieguez
584. Felitti
585. Crossref
586. Miller
587. Crossref
588. Felitti
589. Crossref
590. Data & Statistics (WISQARS™): Cost of Injury Reports, CTR. FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION
591. Posted: 2020-11-27
592. Crossref
593. Gilbert
594. supra note 36. 411. Zhuo et al., supra note 306. 412
595. Torio, Moore
596. Barnett, Nurmagambetov ; Peterson
597. Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107. 417. Felitti et al., supra note 233. 418. Chesson et al., supra note 313. 419. Fang et al., supra note 341, volume 420
598. Murray & Farrington, supra note 232, at 133, 135.
599. Id. at 157.
600. See Laurel Davis & Rebecca J. Shlafer, Mental Health of Adolescents with Currently and Formerly Incarcerated Parents, 54 J. ADOLESCENCE 120, 127–30 (2017).
601. See id. at 127.
602. See id.
603. Rosalyn D. Lee et al., The Impact of Parental Incarceration on the Physical and Mental Health of Young Adults, 131 PEDIATRICS 1188, 1191–92 (2013).
604. CONG. BUDGET OFF., THE VETERANS HEALTH ADMINISTRATION’S TREATMENT OF PTSD AND TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY AMONG RECENT COMBAT VETERANS 17–20 (2012), https://www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/cbofiles/attachments/02-09-PTSD.pdf [https://perma.cc/2YEV-QEGX]; Costs of Outpatient Treatment, FOUNDS. RECOVERY NETWORK, https://dualdiagnosis.org/dual-diagnosis-treatment/outpatient-cost/ (last visited Nov. 27, 2020) [https://perma.cc/4DBT-Z4D4].
605. CONG. BUDGET OFF., supra note at 19 tbl. 2. Adjusted to 2017 dollars, using the AIER Cost of Living Calculator.
606. See, e.g., Phaedra S. Corso et al., Medical Costs and Productivity Losses Due to Interpersonal and Self-Directed Violence in the United States, 32 AM. J. PREVENTATIVE MED. 474, 476 (2007).
607. Anda et al., supra note 232, at 174, 175.
608. E.g., id. at 182.
609. 276. Paul E. Greenberg et al., The Economic Burden of Anxiety Disorders in the 1990s, 60 J. CLINICAL PSYCHIATRY 427, 429 (1999); Paul E. Greenberg et al., The Economic Burden of Adults with Major Depressive Disorder in the United States (2005 and 2010), 76 J. CLINICAL PSYCHIATRY 155, 156–57, 159 (2015).
610. Measured by an answer “yes” to the question, “Do you have much trouble with nervousness?”
611. Anda et al., supra note 232, at 177–78 tbl.2.
612. Calculation based on the findings of Peterson, et al., Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107, at 693–95 tbl.1.
613. Measured by an answer “yes” to the question, “Have you had or do you now have depression or feel down in the dumps?”
614. Anda et al., supra note 224, at 177–78 tbl.2.
615. Calculation based on the findings of Peterson, et al., Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107, at 693–95 tbl.1.
616. Include all reported non-fatal suicide attempts.
617. Felitti et al., supra note 233, at 252 tbl.4.
618. Includes both medical treatment and loss of productivity in cases of non-fatal suicide attempts. Calculation based on the findings of Peterson et al., Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107, at 693–95 tbl.1; Number of Deaths and Estimated Average and Total Lifetime Costs, United States, 2010, CTRS. FOR DISEASE CONTROL & PREVENTION, https://www.cdc.gov/injury/wisqars/nonfatal.html (last visited Nov. 27, 2020) [https://perma.cc/24CZ-AM6E]; Corso et al., supra note 275, at 477.
619. Natalie Slopen et al., Childhood Adversity and Cell-Mediated Immunity in Young Adulthood: Does Type and Timing Matter?, 28 BRAIN, BEHAV., & IMMUNITY 63, 63–64, 68 (2013); Molly L. Paras et al., Sexual Abuse and Lifetime Diagnosis of Somatic Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis, 302 J. AM. MED. ASS’N 550, 550, 555 (2009); Alanna D. Hager & Marsha G. Runtz, Physical and Psychological Maltreatment in Childhood and Later Health Problems in Women: An Exploratory Investigation of the Roles of Perceived Stress and Coping Strategies, 36 CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT 393, 393, 400 (2012); Renée Boynton-Jarrett et al., Child and Adolescent Abuse in Relation to Obesity in Adulthood: The Black Women’s Health Study, 130 PEDIATRICS 245, 251 (2012); Roberto Maniglio, The Impact of Child Sexual Abuse on Health: A Systematic Review of Reviews, 29 CLINICAL PSYCH. REV. 647, 654 (2009).
620. Felitti et al., supra note 233, at 250, 253 tbl.5.
621. Id. at 250, 253 tbl.7.
622. Id. at 249, 252 tbl.4.
623. Id. at 250, 254–55.
624. See id. at 250; Anda et al., supra note 232, at 174; Gilbert et al., supra note 105, at 346.
625. Gilbert et al., supra note 107, at 346.
626. Sophia Miryam Schüssler-Fiorenza Rose et al., Adverse Childhood Experiences & Disability in U.S. Adults, 6(8) AM. ACAD. PHYS. MED. & REHAB. 670, 673 (2014).
627. See THERESA DOLEZAL ET AL., ACAD. ON VIOLENCE & ABUSE, HIDDEN COSTS IN HEALTH CARE: THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF VIOLENCE AND ABUSE 6 (2009).
628. See id. at 8.
629. Felitti et al., supra note 233, at 247.
630. See id. at 250; Gilbert et al., supra note 105, at 345–46; Anda et al., supra note 232, at 178.
631. Felitti et al., supra note 233, at 254 tbl.7.
632. Calculated as the average costs of treatment during the four years following diagnosis, based on the three most common types of cancer (lung, breast, and colorectal). See GABRIELA DIEGUEZ ET AL., MILLIMAN RSCH. REP., A MULTI-YEAR LOOK AT THE COST BURDEN OF CANCER CARE 4 (2017), https://milliman-cdn.azureedge.net/-/media/milliman/importedfiles/uploadedfiles/insight/2017/cost-burden-cancer-care.ashx [https:// perma.cc/DTY9-CAFM].
633. Felitti et al., supra note 233, at 254 tbl.7.
634. Discounted lifetime cost of a typical COPD patient (i.e., sixty years old, former smoker, GOLD stage I or II). Estimate is based on the cost for the male population, as it is lower than female costs. See Jeffrey D. Miller et al., Lifetime Costs and Impact on Life Expectancy of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) in the U.S.: Projections from a Decision-Analytic Model, 9 VALUE IN HEALTH A93 (2006).
635. Felitti et al., supra note 233, at 255 tbl.8.
636. Calculated using Data & Statistics (WISQARS™): Cost of Injury Reports, CTRS. FOR DISEASE CONTROL & PREVENTION, https://wisqars.cdc.gov:8443/costT/ (last visited Nov. 27, 2020).
637. Although the original ACE study found diabetes to have a non-significant effect for children exposed to 1 ACE, and more recent study with a much larger sample found a statistically significant effect under the 1-3 ACE category. See Felitti et al., supra note 233, at 250. Thus, we have opted to include diabetes in the analysis.
638. Gilbert et al., supra note 105, at 348 tbl.2.
639. Calculated as the average lifetime medical costs of treating type 2 diabetes. See Xiaohui Zhuo et al., Lifetime Direct Medical Costs of Treating Type 2 Diabetes and Diabetic Complications, 45 AM. J. PREV. MED. 253, 256–57 (2013).
640. Including heart attack or use of nitroglycerin for exertional chest pain. Felitti et al., supra note 233, at 248.
641. Gilbert et al., supra note 105, at 348 tbl.2.
642. Calculated as the average cost of a single hospital stay for the treatment of Myocardial Infraction in 2013. See Celeste M. Torio & Brian J. Moore, National Inpatient Hospital Costs: The Most Expensive Conditions by Payer, 2013, AGENCY HEALTHCARE RSCH. & QUALITY (May 2016), https://www.hcup-us.ahrq.gov/reports/ statbriefs/sb204-Most-Expensive-Hospital-Conditions.jsp. [https://perma.cc/3XWT-DBGK].
643. Gilbert et al., supra note 105, at 348 tbl.2.
644. Reflects the lifetime cost of asthma treatment, including outpatient and inpatient medical care, and prescribed medications. Sarah Beth L. Barnett & Tursynbek A. Nurmagambetov, Costs of Asthma in the United States: 2002-2007, 127 J. ALLERGY & CLINICAL IMMUNOLOGY 145, 147 (2011); Peterson et al., Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107, at 694 tbl.1.
645. Felitti et al., supra note 233, at 253 tbl. 5.
646. Calculated as the average total cost per year of the 8 most common STIs. See Harrell W. Chesson et al., The Estimated Direct Medical Cost of Sexually Transmitted Diseases Among American Youth, 2000, 36 PERSPS. SEXUAL & REPROD. HEALTH 11, 12 (2004).
647. David S. Zielinski, Child Maltreatment and Adult Socioeconomic Well-Being, 33 CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT 666, 671 (2009); see also Ross Macmillan & John Hagan, Violence in the Transition to Adulthood: Adolescent Victimization, Education, and Socioeconomic Attainment in Later Life, 14 J. RSCH. ON ADOLESCENCE 127, 137–52 (2004) (discussing studies which measure the effect on children exposed to direct victimization).
648. See supra Section III.A.
649. See Gilad et al., supra note 1, at 60–61; Zielinski, supra note 314, at 667; WILLIAM H. SEWELL & ROBERT M. HAUSER, EDUCATION, OCCUPATION, AND EARNINGS: ACHIEVEMENT IN THE EARLY CAREER (H.H. Winsborough ed.,1975); W. Norton Grubb, Postsecondary Education and the Sub-Baccalaureate Labor Market: Corrections and Extensions, 14 ECON. EDUC. REV. 285, 293 (1995); Orley Ashenfelter & Cecilia Rouse, Income, Schooling, and Ability: Evidence from a New Sample of Identical Twins, 113 Q.J. ECON. 253, 281 (1998); Stacey Berg Dale & Alan B. Krueger, Estimating the Payoff to Attending a More Selective College: An Application of Selection on Observables and Unobservables, 117 Q.J. ECON. 1491 (2002); JENNIFER CHEESEMAN DAY & ERIC C. NEWBURGER, U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, THE BIG PAYOFF: EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT AND SYNTHETIC ESTIMATES OF WORK-LIFE EARNINGS 2 (2002), https://www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/p23-210.pdf [https:// perma.cc/V4RZ-7F8H]; Macmillan & Hagan, supra note 314, at 152; Metzler et al., supra note 201, at 144, 146– 47; Currie & Widom, supra note 36, at 117; cf. Avshalom Caspi et al., Continuities and Consequences of Interactional Styles Across the Life Course, 57 J. PERSONALITY 375 (1989); Yong Liu et al., Relationship Between Adverse Childhood Experiences and Unemployment Among Adults from Five US States, 48 SOC. PSYCHIATRY & PSYCHIATRIC EPIDEMIOLOGY 357, 364 (2013).
650. See Gilad et al., supra note 1, at 55–56.
651. Stacy Overstreet & Shawnee Braun, A Preliminary Examination of the Relationship Between Exposure to Community Violence and Academic Functioning, 14 SCH. PSYCH. Q. 380, 380 (1999); Metzler et. al., supra note 201, at 141; Manuel E. Jimenez et al., Adverse Experiences in Early Childhood and Kindergarten Outcomes, 137 PEDIATRICS 1, 1 (2016); Allwood & Widom, supra note 194, at 551; Cynthia M. Perez & Cathy Spatz Widom, Childhood Victimization and Long-Term Intellectual and Academic Outcomes, 18 CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT 617, 626 (1994); Danielle H. Dallaire, Children with Incarcerated Mothers: Developmental Outcomes, Special Challenges and Recommendations, 28 J. APPLIED DEV. PSYCH. 15, 17 (2007); Larissa A. Borofsky et al., Community Violence Exposure and Adolescents’ School Engagement and Academic Achievement Over Time, 3 PSYCH. VIOLENCE 381, 381 (2013); David Schwartz & Andrea Hopmeyer Gorman, Community Violence Exposure and Children’s Academic Functioning, 95 J. EDUC. PSYCH. 163, 172 (2003); Herbert C. Covey et al., Effects of Adolescent Physical Abuse, Exposure to Neighborhood Violence, and Witnessing Parental Violence on Adult Socioeconomic Status, 18 CHILD MALTREATMENT 85, 92–93 (2013); Natasha K. Bowen & Gary L. Bowen, Effects of Crime and Violence in Neighborhoods and Schools on the School Behavior and Performance of Adolescents, 14 J. ADOLESCENT RSCH. progress-and-classroom-behavior.pdf?sfvrsn=1828de3f_12 [https://perma.cc/4NAE-3HP8]; Nadine J. Burke et al., The Impact of Adverse Childhood Experiences on an Urban Pediatric Population, 35 CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT 408, 408 (2011); Tracy Vaillancourt & Patricia McDougall, The Link Between Childhood Exposure to Violence and Academic Achievement: Complex Pathways, 41 J. ABNORMAL CHILD PSYCH. 1177, 1177 (2013); Holly Foster & John Hagan, The Mass Incarceration of Parents in America: Issues of Race/Ethnicity, Collateral Damage to Children, and Prisoner Reentry, 623 ANNALS AM. ACAD. POL. & SOC. SCI. 179, 179 (2009); Lisa R. Kiesel et al., The Relationship Between Child Maltreatment, Intimate Partner Violence Exposure, and Academic Performance, 10 J. PUB. CHILD WELFARE 434, 434 (2016); Stephen J. Lepore & Wendy Kliewer, Violence Exposure, Sleep Disturbance, and Poor Academic Performance in Middle School, 41 J. ABNORMAL CHILD PSYCH. 1179, 1179 (2013); Macmillan & Hagan, supra note 346, at 127; Mears & Siennick, supra note 232, at 3.
652. Moffitt, supra note 140, at 1625; McGaha-Garnett, supra note 318, at 2; Kathryn R. Wilson et al., The Traumatic Stress Response in Child Maltreatment and Resultant Neuropsychological Effects, 16 AGGRESSION & VIOLENT BEHAV. 87, 87 (2011).
653. Moffitt, supra note 140, at 1625.
654. Id. at 1625; Karestan C. Koenen et al., Domestic Violence Is Associated with Environmental Suppression of IQ in Young Children, 15 DEV. & PSYCHOPATHOLOGY 297, 297 (2013); Normand J. Carrey et al., Physiological and Cognitive Correlates of Child Abuse, 34 J. AM. ACAD. CHILD & ADOLESCENT PSYCHIATRY 1067, 1067 (1995); Virginia Delaney-Black et al., Violence Exposure, Trauma, and IQ and/or Reading Deficits Among Urban Children, 156 ARCHIVES PEDIATRIC & ADOLESCENT MED. 280, 280–95 (2002); Wilson et al., supra note 319, at 93.
655. Moffitt, supra note 140, at 1626; Koenen et al., supra note 321, at 297; Wilson et al., supra note 319, at 93–94; Perez & Widom, supra note 318, at 617.
656. Moffitt, supra note 140, at 1625–26; Wilson et al., supra note 319, at 92.
657. Cf. Tenah K.A. Hunt et al., Adverse Childhood Experiences and Behavioral Problems in Middle Childhood, 67 CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT 391 (2017); Jimenez et al., supra note 318, at 1.
658. imenez et al., supra note 318, at 1.
659. Id.
660. Allwood & Widom, supra note 194, at 551; Lansford et al., supra note 194, at 238–40; Mears & Sinnick, supra note 232, at 22.
661. (1999); Murray & Farrington, supra note 232, at 135; Rucker C. Johnson, Ever-Increasing Levels of Parental Incarceration the Consequences and for Children, in DO PRISONS MAKE US SAFER? THE BENEFITS AND COSTS OF THE PRISON BOOM 177, 178 (Steven Raphael & Michael A. Stoll eds., 2009) ; Joseph M. Boden et al., Exposure to Childhood Sexual and Physical Abuse and Subsequent Educational Achievement Outcomes, 31 CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT 1101, 1101 (2007);
662. Hallam Hurt et al., Exposure to Violence: Psychological and Academic Correlates in Child Witnesses, ARCHIVES PEDIATRIC & ADOLESCENT MED. 1351, 1351 (2001);
663. Currie & Widom, supra note 36, at 111; LEILA MORSY & RICHARD ROTHSTEIN, ECON. POL’Y INST., MASS INCARCERATION AND CHILDREN’S OUTCOMES: CRIMINAL JUSTICE POLICY IS EDUCATION POLICY 1 (Dec. 2016);
664. Rosa Minhyo Cho, Maternal Incarceration and Children’s Adolescent Outcomes: Timing and Dosage, 84 SOC. SERV. REV. 257, 257 (2010);
665. Niclas Olofsson et al., Physical and Psychological Symptoms and Learning Difficulties in Children of Women Exposed and Non-Exposed to Violence: A Population-Based Study, 56 INT’L J. PUB. HEALTH 89, 89 (2011);
666. Christopher C. Henrich et al., The Association of Community Violence Exposure with Middle-School Achievement: A Prospective Study, 25 APPLIED DEV. PSYCH. 327, 327 (2004);
667. Alissa C. Huth-Bocks et al., The Direct and Indirect Effects of Domestic Violence on Young Children’s Intellectual Functioning, 16 J. FAM. VIOLENCE 269, 269 (2001); Luster et al., supra note 232, at 1323;
668. Valerie McGahaGarnett, The Effects of Violence on Academic Progress and Classroom Behavior: From a Parent’s Perspective, VISTAS 1 (2013), https://www.counseling.org/docs/default-source/vistas/the-effects-of-violence-on-academic
669. PA. STATE INTERAGENCY COORDINATING COUNCIL FOR EARLY INTERVENTION, ANNUAL REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE GOVERNOR 2 (2015–2016). Adjusted to 2017 dollars, using The American Institute of Economic Research (AIER) Cost of Living Calculator.
670. Macmillan & Hagan, supra note 314, at 131–32; see Zielinski, supra note 314, at 675; Ashenfelter & Rouse, supra note 316, at 281; Dale & Krueger, supra note 316, at 1525; Day & Newburger, supra note 316, at 2; SEWELL & HAUSER, supra note 316, at 189; Grubb, supra note 316, at 290.
671. Ross Macmillan, Adolescent Victimization and Income Deficits in Adulthood: Rethinking the Costs of Criminal Violence from a Life-Course Perspective, 38 CRIMINOLOGY 553, 570 (2000).
672. See, e.g., Currie & Widom, supra note 36, at 117; Foster et al., supra note 86; Deborah Gorman-Smith & Patrick Tolan, The Role of Exposure to Community Violence and Developmental Problems Among Inner-City Youth, 10 DEV. PSYCHOPATHOLOGY 101, 101 (1998).
673. See infra notes 335–41.
674. Currie & Widom, supra note 36, at 117.
675. Macmillan, supra note 330, at 566, 570. 335. Currie & Widom, supra note 36, at 117.
676. Zielinski, supra note 314, at 671.
677. Daniel B. Hernman et al., Adverse Childhood Experiences: Are They Risk Factors for Adult Homelessness?, 87 AM. J. PUB. HEALTH 249, 252 (1997).
678. Mears & Siennick, supra note 232, at 22. 339. Macmillan & Hagan, supra note 314, at 150; Zielinski, supra note 314, at 674; Liu et al., supra note 316, at 361.
679. See infra Table 9.
680. Xiangming Fang et al., The Economic Burden of Child Maltreatment in the United States and Implications for Prevention, 36 CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT 156, 159 (2012). 342. See Zielinski, supra note 314. 343. See id.
681. Macmillan & Hagan, supra note 314, at 151.
682. Rose et al., supra note 293; Gilbert et al., supra note 105, at 348.
683. Including Public Assistance, Supplemental Security Income, and Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program. Ann C. Foster & Arcenis Rojas, Program Participation and Spending Patterns of Families Receiving Government Means-Tested Assistance, MONTHLY LAB. REV. (Jan. 2018), https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/ 2018/article/program-participation-and-spending-patterns-of-families-receiving-means-tested-assistance.htm [https://perma.cc/88DH-CPVL].
684. Based on the Bureau of Labor Statistics 2014 estimates, converted to 2017 dollars. See id. 348. U.S. SOC. SEC. ADMIN., ANNUAL STATISTICAL REPORT ON THE SOCIAL SECURITY DISABILITY INSURANCE PROGRAM 2017 58, 61 tbl.20 (2017), https://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/statcomps/di_asr/2017/ sect01c.pdf [https://perma.cc/7V5Y-R7EZ].
685. This outcome calculates the average effect on the entire population of children exposed individuals, in comparison to those unexposed, and therefore applies to total number of affected individuals in the cohort. See, e.g., Fang et al., supra note 341, at 159.
686. Calculated based on the 2019 GDP of the United Stated, which amounted to $21.43 trillion. Gross Domestic Product, Fourth Quarter and Year 2019 (Advance Estimate), BUREAU OF ECONOMIC ANALYSIS, https://www.bea.gov/news/2020/gross-domestic-product-fourth-quarter-and-year-2019-advance-estimate#:~:text=Current%2Ddollar%20GDP%20increased%204.1,table%201%20and%20table%203 (last visited Nov. 27, 2020) [https://perma.cc/W2JL-35RF].
687. See infra Table 11.
688. See Megan R. Holmes et al., Economic Burden of Child Exposure to Intimate Partner Violence in the United States, 33 J. FAM. VIOLENCE 239, 239 (2018).
689. Fang et al., supra note 341, at 159; Cora Peterson et al., The Economic Burden of Child Maltreatment in the United States, 2015, 86 CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT 178, 178 (2018).
690. Peterson et al., Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107, at 692.
691. See Fang et al., supra note 341, at 159; Peterson et al., supra note 355, at 179–80.
692. Peterson et al., Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107, at 692.
693. 359. See Fang et al., supra note 341, at 160.
694. Id. at 160, tbl.1.
695. See id.
696. Id.
697. Peterson et al., Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107, at 697.
698. See, e.g., WORLD HEALTH ORG., WORLD REPORT ON VIOLENCE AND HEALTH 149–81 (2002), https:// www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/global_campaign/en/chap6.pdf [https://perma.cc/D59PYZEN].
699. Peterson et al., Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107, at 697.
700. See id. at 691–97.
701. Id. at 692.
702. See supra Section II.A.
703. Peterson et al., supra note 354, at 181.
704. Id.
705. Id. at 181, 183.
706. See Fang et al., supra note 341.
707. See Peterson et al., supra note 354.
708. See Holmes et al., supra note 354.
709. Peterson et al., Lifetime Economic Burden of Rape Among US Adults, supra note 107, at 697.
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