Comparative Review of Crude Protein and Amino Acids of Leguminous Seeds Grown in Nigeria

Author(s): M. O. Aremu, Saratu Stephen Audu, Benedict Lyambee Gav

Legumes are some of the low–priced sources of protein–rich foods that have been found important in alleviating protein malnutrition especially in developing countries. Amino acids are the basic structural building units of proteins. They form short polymer chains called peptides or polypeptides which in turn form structures called proteins. The most common methods of determining nitrogen in foods are Kjeldahl, Formol titration, Dye–binding, Lowry, Biuret and Spectroscopic methods while amino acid composition is usually determined using ion–exchange chromatography on hydrolyzed and derivatized protein in food material. Crude protein and amino acid composition of some Nigerian leguminous seeds were critically reviewed in this write up. The selected legumes are; Cajanus cajan, Glycine max, Vigna unguiculata, Arachis hypogea, Vigna subterranea, Kerstingiella geocarpa, Sphenostylis sternocarpa, Phaseolus coccineus, Phaseolus lunatus, Citrulus vulgaris and Phaseolus vulgaris. The review shows that the protein content of legumes varies between 11.6 – 52.6%. The most abundant amino acids are glutamic and aspartic acids. The total essential amino acids (TEAA) range between 41.28 – 68.85%, total non–essential amino acids (TNEAA) range between 31.50 – 58.72% and total acidic amino acids (TAAA) between 14.30 – 40.47% for all the legumes reviewed. Generally, leguminous seeds are good sources of most of the essential amino acids therefore they are highly suitable for the fortification of cereal products mostly used as weaning foods for children in most African countries.

Protein Content, Amino Acid Composition, Legumes

1. Shakuntala, M. N., Shadaksharaw, M. & Swamy, M. (1987). Foods Facts and Principles. Wiley Eastern Ltd. New Delhi, India.
2. Encyclopedia Americana (1972). Grolier Incorporated Copyright©.
3. Milner, M. (1981). Protein Resources in International Food Aid Programs. In: Utilization of Protein Resources; Stanley, D. W., Murray, E. D. & Lees, D. H. (eds), Food and Nutrition Press.
4. Wikipedia Encyclopedia (2005). www.wikipediaencyclopedia.com.
5. Altschul, A. M. (1965). Protein: Their Chemistry and Politics. Chapman and Hall.
6. Fox, B. A. & Cameron, A. G. (1970). Food Science: A Chemical Approach. University Press, London.
7. Powrie, W. D. & Nakai, S. (1981). Processing Effects on Protein Systems. In: Utilization of Protein Resources. Stanley, D. W., Murray, E. D. & Lees, D. H. (eds). Food and Nutrition Press.
8. Walker, A. F. & Kocher, N. (1982). Effects of processing including domestic cooking on nutritional quality of legumes. Proc. Nutr. Soc., 41, 41 – 46.
9. Aykroyd, W. R. & Doughty, J. (1994). Legumes in Human Nutrition. FAO Nutrition Studies No. 19, FAO, Rome.
10. Duke, J. A. (1981). Handbook of legumes of World Economic importance, Plenum Press.
11. Akintayo, E. T., Oshodi, A. A. & Esuoso, K. O. (1999). Effect of strength and pH on the faming and gelation of pigean pea (Cajanus cajan) protein concentrates. Food Chemistry, 66, 51 – 56.
12. Olaofe, O. & Sanni, C. O. (1988). Mineral contents of agriculture products. Food Chem., 30, 73 – 77.
13. Aremu, M. O., Olonisakin, A., Bako, D. A. & Madu, P. C. (2006d). Compositional studies and physicochemical characteristics of cashew nut (Anarcadium occidentale) flour. Pak. J. Nutri., 5(4), 328 – 333.
14. Adebowale, K. O. & Lawal, O. S. (2004). Comparative study of the functional properties of bambara groundnut (Voandzeia subterranea), jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis) and mucuna bean (Mucuna pruriens) flours. Food Res. Int., 37, 355 – 365.
15. Aremu, M. O., Olaofe, O. & Akintayo, E. T. (2005a). Nutritional qualities assessment of the presence of hull in some Nigerian underutilized legume seeds. Bulletin of Pure and Applied Sci., 24(1–2), 47 – 52.
16. Olaofe, O., Adeyemi, F. O. & Adediran, G. O. (1994). Amino acid and mineral composition and functional properties of some oilseeds. J. Agric Food Chem., 42, 878 – 881.
17. Akinola, J. O., Whiteman, P. C. & Walls, E. S. (1975). The agronomy of pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan). Department of Agriculture, University of Queensland, St. Lucia Queensland, Australia, pp. 134 – 137.
18. Summerfield, R. J. & Roberts, E. H. (1985). Grain Legumes Crops (1st ed). London, Collins Professional & Technical Books, pp. 658 – 659.
19. Badifu, G. I. O. (1992). Food potential of some unconventional oilseed grown in Nigeria: A brief review. Plant Foods for Human Nutri., 43, 211 – 224.
20. Oshodi, A. A., Olaofe, O. & Hall, G. M. (1993). Amino acid, fatty acid and mineral composition of pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan). Int. J. Food Sci. & Nutri., 43, 187 – 191.
21. Oshodi, A. A., Esuoso, K. O. & Akintayo, E. T. (1998). Proximate and amino acid composition of some underutilized Nigeria legume flour and protein concentrate. La Rivista Italiana Delle Sustanze Grasse, LXXV, 409 – 412.
22. Oshodi, A. A. & Ekperigin, M. M. (1989). Functional properties of pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) flour. Food Chem., 34, 187 – 191.
23. Siegel, A. & Fawcett, B. (1976). Food Legume Processing and Utilization, with Special Emphasis on Application in Developing Countries, IDRC, Ottawa.
24. Eneche, E. H. (1999). Biscuit making potential of millet/pigeon pea flour blends. Plant Food Humand Nutri., 54, 21 – 27.
25. Agboola, Y. A. & Oguntuase, O. S. (2006). Effect of Baculus sphaericus on proximate composition of soybeans for the production of soy–iru. Pak. J. Nutri., 5(6), 606 – 609.
26. Ihekoronye, A. I. & Ngoddy, P. O. (1985). Integrated Food Science and Technology for the Tropics. Macmillan Publisher, London, pp. 28 – 50.
27. Desonck, D. G. (1991). Systematic and Morphology. In: Van Schoonhoven, A. and Voysest, O. (Eds.). Common Beans Research for Crop Improvement. CAB International, Wallingford, UK, pp. 55 – 118.
28. Nnanyelugo, D. O., King, J., Ene–Obong, H. N. & Ngoddy, P. O. (1995). Seasonal variation and the contribution on cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) and other legues to nutrient intake in Anambra State, Nigeria. Ecology, Food Nutri., 17, 271 – 281.
29. McWatters, K. H. & Brantley, B. B. (1982). Characteristic of “Akara” prepared from cowpea paste and meal food. Technology, 36, 66 – 68.
30. Aremu, M. O., Olaofe, O. & Akintayo, E. T. (2006a). Compositional evaluation of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) and scarlet runner bean (Phaseolus coccineus) varieties grown in Nigeria. J. Food, Agric & Environ., 4(2), 39 – 46.
31. Aletor, V. A. & Aladetimi, O. O. (1989). Compositional evaluation of some cowpea varieties and some underutilized legumes in Nigeria. Die Nahrung, 33(10), 99 – 107.
32. Aremu, M. O., Olaofe, O. & Olonisakin, A. (2005b). Nutritional valuable mineral contents of two varieties of maize (Zea mays) produced in Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria. J. Ultra Chem., 1(2), 87 – 90.
33. Haines, C. P. (1991). Insects and arachnids of tropical stored products: Their biology and identification. Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, Kent, UK.
34. Doku, E. V. & karikari, S. K. (1971). Bambara groundnut. Economic Botany, 25, 3 – 5.
35. Rachie, K. O. & Silvestre, P. (1977). Grain Legumes. In: Crops of the Lowland Tropics. Leakey, C. L. A. & Willis, J. B. (eds). Oxford University Press, London, p. 44.
36. Aremu, M. O., Mamman, S. & Olonisakin, A. (2013). Evaluation of fatty acids and physicochemical characteristics of six varieties of bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea L. Verdc.) seed oils. La Rivista Italiana Delle Sostanze Grasse, 90: 107–113.
37. Tindall, H. D. (1986). Vegetables in the Tropics. Macmillan Edu. Ltd. Hampshire, pp. 267 – 278.
38. Abbey, B. W. & Ayuh, E. J. (1991). Functional properties of the African yam bean flour. Nig. J. Nutri., 12, 44 – 47.
39. Kaplan, L. & Kaplan L. (1988). Phaseolus in archaeology. In: Genetic Resources of Phaseolus beans. Gept, P. (eds). Khrwer Academic, Dordvocht. The Netherlands, pp. 125 – 142.
40. Delgawo, S. A. (1985). Systematics of the Genus Phaseolus (Leguminosae) in North and Central America, Ph.D Thesis. University of Texas, Austin, USA.
41. Hernandez, X. E., Collins, M. & Prywar, C. (1959). El–origende Phaseolus coccineus L. derwimalus Hdzx and Mivanda C. subspecies nova. Rev. Soc. Men. Hist. Nt., 20(1–4), 99 – 121.
42. Elias, L. G., Cvistales, F. R., Bressani, R. & Mivanda, H. (1976). Chemical composition and nutritive value of some grain legumes nutrient. Abs. Rev. (Series B/1977), 47, 603 – 610.
43. Aremu, M. O., Olaofe, O. & Orjioke, C. A. (2008a). Proximate and amino acid composition of bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea), kersting’s groundnut (Kerstingiella geocarpa) and scarlet runner bean (Phaseolus coccineus) protein concentrates. La Rivista Italiana Delle Sostanze Grasse, LXXXV, 56 – 62.
44. Aremu, M. O., Salau, R. A., Olowoniyi, F. D., Ambo, I. A., Ombugadu, R. J. & Maxwell, C. K. (2010). Chemical analyses and food properties of lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus L.) flour, Int. J. Chem. Sci., 3(1): 83 – 93.
45. Akindele, A. M. (1978). Studies on “Ogiri”, a Nigerian fermented melon seed condiment. M.Sc Thesis University of Ile–Ife, Nigeria.
46. Ogundana, S. K. (1980). The production of “Ogiri”, a Nigerian fermented soup condiment. Lebensm–Wissll–Techn., 13, 334 – 336.
47. Audu, S. S., Aremu, M. O. & Lajide, L. (2013). Influence of traditional processing on the nutritional composition of black turtle bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) grown in Nigeria. Int. Food Res. J., 20: 3211 - 3220.
48. Mosse, J. & Baudet, J. (1983). Crude protein content and amino acid composition of seeds, variability and correlations. Qual. Plant Foods Hum. Nutr., 32, 225 – 245.
49. Mosse, J. & Pernollet, J. C. (1983). Storage proteins of legume seeds. In: Chemistry and Biochemistry of Legumes. Arora, S. K. (ed.), Edward Arnold, London, pp. 111 – 193.
50. Muller, H. P. (1983). The genetic control of seed protein production in legumes. In: Seed Proteins, Biochemistry, genetics, Nutritive Value. Gottschalk, W. & Muller, H. P. (eds.). Martinus Nijhoff–Junk. Hagne, Boston, pp. 309 – 353.
51. Nielsen, N. C. (1984). The chemistry of legume storage proteins. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London. B. Biol. Sci., 304, 287 – 296.
52. Rosenthal, L. (1991). Milk and Dairy Products: Properties and Processing. Balatan Publication, New York, pp. 47 – 49.
53. Pearson, D. (1976). Chemical Analysis of Foods (7th edn.); London, Churchill Livingstone.
54. Spackman, D. H., Stein, W. H. & More, S. (1958). Automatic recording apparatus for use in the chromatography of amino acids. Anal. Chem., 301, 1190 – 1206.
55. Aremu, M. O. & Ekunode, O. E. (2008b). nutritional evaluation and functional properties of Clarias lazera (African catfish) from River Tammah in Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Amer. J. Food Tech., 3(4), 264 – 274.
56. Ekeke, G. I. & Shode, E. O. (1990). Phenyklanine, the predominant antisickling agent in Cajanus cajan seed extract. Plant Media, 56, 41 – 43.
57. Bhatty, R. S., Sosulski, F. W. & Wu, K. K. (1973). Protein and non–protein nitrogen contents of some oilseeds and peas. Canadian J. Plant Sci., 53(3), 651 – 657.
58. Ene–Obong, H. N. & Carnovale, E. D. (1992). A composition of the proximate, mineral and amino acid of some lesser known legumes in Nigeria. Food Chem., 43, 169 – 175.
59. Nnenna, J. E. (1998). Foods of Plant Origin. Afro–Orbis Publication Ltd. Nigeria, pp. 4 – 7.
60. Oyenuga, V. A. (1968). Nigerian Foods and Feeding Stuff, 3rd edn. Nigeria University Press, Ibadan, p. 35.
61. Singh, S. R., Rachie, K. O. & Dashiell, K. E. (1989). Soybean for the Tropics. John Wiley and Sons Ltd, pp. 149 – 160.
62. Salunkhe, D. K., Chavan, J. C., adsule, R. N. & Kadam, S. S. (1992). World Oilseeds, Chemistry and Utilization. An Avi Book Published by Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
63. Fukunshima, D. (1991). Recent Progress of soybeans protein food chemistry, technology and nutrition. Food Rev. Int., 3, 323 – 351.
64. West, C. E., Pepping, F. & Temaliwa, C. R. (1988). The Composition of Foods, Commonly Eaten in Eat Africa. Wageninger Agricultural University.
65. Salunkhe, D. K., Kadam, S. S. & Chavan, J. K. (1985). CRC Postharvest Biotechnology of Food legumes. CRC, Prss Boca Raton, FL.
66. Aremu, M. O., Olaofe, O. & Akintayo, E. T. (2006c). A comparative study on the chemical and amino acid composition of some Nigerian underutilized legume flours. Pak. J. Nutri., 5(1), 34 – 38.
67. Akobundu, E. N. T, Cherry, J. P. & Summon, J. G. (1982). Chemical, functional and nutritional properties of egusi (Colocythis citrullus L.) seed protein products. J. Food Sci., 47, 829 – 434.
68. Splittstoesser, W. E., Martin, F. N. & Rhodes, A. M. (1973). The amino acid composition of fire yam species (Dioscorea ssp). J. Amer. Sol. Hort. Sci., 98, 563 – 567.
69. Iwe, M. O., Van Znilichem, Lammers, W. & Ngoddy, P. O. (2001). Amino acid and protein despersibility index (PDI) of mixtures of extruded soy and sweet potato flours. Lenbenson–Wiss U–Tech., 34, 71 – 75.
70. Aisegbu, J. E. (1987). Some biochemical evaluation of fluted pumpkin seed. J. Sci. Food Agric, 40, 151 – 155.
71. Olaofe, O., Umar, Y. O. & Adediran, G. O. (1993). The effect of nematicids on the nutritive value and functional properties of cowpea seeds. Food Chem., 46, 337 – 342.
72. Aremu, M. O., Olaofe, O. & Akintayo, E. T. (2006b). Mineral and amino acid composition of two varieties of bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) and kersting’s groundnut (Kerstingiella geocarpa) flour. Int. J. Chem., 16, 57 – 64.
73. Sanchez–Vioque, R., Clemente, A., Vioque, J., Bautista, J. & Millan, F. (1999). Protein isolates from hickpea (Cier arietinum L.): Chemical composition, functional properties and protein characterization. Food Chemistry, 64, 237 – 243.
74. Olaofe, O., Akintayo, E. T., Adeyeye, E. I. & Adubiaro, H. O. (2006). Proximate composition and functional properties of bulma cotton (Bombcapsis glasbra) seeds. Egypt J. Food Sci., 34, 81 – 90.
75. Aremu, M. O., Olonisakin, A., Atolaiye, B. O. & Ogbu, C. F. (2007). Some nutritional composition and functional properties of Prosopis africana. Bangladesh J. Sci. Ind. Res., 42(3), 269 – 280.
76. Audu, S. S. & Aremu, M. O. (2011). Effect of processing on chemical composition of red kidney bean (Phaseolus vulagaris L.) flour. Pak. J. Nutri., 10(11): 1069 – 1075.
77. Aremu, M. O., Awala, E. Y., Opaluwa, O. D., Odoh, R. & Bamidele, T. O. (2015). Effect of processing on nutritional composition of African locust bean (Parkia biglobosa) and mesquite bean (Prosopis africana) seeds. Communication in Applied Sciences, 3(1): 22–41
78. Fagbemi, T. N. & Oshodi, A. A. (1991). Chemical composition and properties of full fat fluted pumpkin (Talfairia occidentalis) seed flour. Nig. Food J., 9, 26 – 31.
79. Audu, S. S., Aremu, M. O. & Lajide, L. (2013). Effect of processing on physicochemical and anti–nutritional properties of black turtle beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) seeds flour. Oriental J. Chem., 29(3): 979 - 989.
80. Adeyeye, E. I. (2004). The chemical composition of liquid and solid endosperm of ripe coconut. Oriental J. Chem., 20, 471 – 478.
81. Oshodi, A. A., Ogungbenle, H. N. & Oladimeji, M. O. (1999). Chemical composition, nutritionally valuable minerals and functional properties of benniseed (Sesamum radiatum), pearl millet (Pennisetum typhoides) and quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) flours. Int. J. Food Sci., 50, 325 – 331.
82. Olaofe, O. & Akintayo, E. T. (2000). Prediction of isoelectric points of legume and oilseed proteins from their amino acid composition. J. Technoscience, 4, 49 – 53.
83. Coulate, T. P. (1982). Food: The Chemistry of its Components. Royal Society of Chemistry, London, pp. 76 – 77.
84. Aremu, M. O., Bamidele, T. O., Mohammed, Y., Opaluwa, O. D., Bako, S. S. & Ramalan, F. (2011). Amino acid components important for health from animal protein sources. NSUK J. Sci. & Tech., 1(1&2): 94 – 100.
85. Aremu, M. O., Namo, S. B., Oko, O. J., Adelagun, R. O. A. & Yebpella, G. G. (2014). Comparative evaluation of local smoked Nigerian mackerel (Scomber scombrus). J. Food Sci. & Quality Mgt., 24: 42 – 50.
86. Aremu, M. O., Namo, B. S., Mohammed, Y., Archibong, C. S. & Ogah, E. (2014). Effect of different sources of heat on nutritional composition of tilapia fish (Oreochromis niloticus). Chemistry and Materials Res., 6(5): 85 – 93.