Environmental Insecurity and Erosion of Women Socio-economic Status in the Niger Delta, Nigeria

Author(s): Crosdel O. Emuedo, Michael Abam, Blessing Oligbi

The Niger Delta has been the hub of oil operations since 1958. Before the advent of oil, the people women mostly depended on the natural environment; fishing and farming for their livelihoods. However, oil operations in the region have been accompanied by unabated oil spillages and huge gas flares that have acutely despoiled the environment. The papers examine oil operations and environmental insecurity in the Niger Delta. The paper contends that oil operations have virtually stripped women of their known means of livelihoods, with no other alternative means of sustenance; leading to servile poverty. This has forced women into practices traditionally abhorred in the region for sustenance. The paper concludes that but for oil operations, women socio-economic status would not have been so adversely impacted and ingloriously diminished.

Environmental Insecurity, Women Socio-economic Status, Niger Delta

1. Abara, D. (2009). “Chemical Analysis of Soil in parts of the Niger Delta”. J. Environ. Chem., 2(1):28-34.
2. Addison, T. (2005). “Agricultural development for peace”. Research Paper No. 2005/07, WIDER (World Institute for Development Economics Research), United Nations University.
3. Adedipe, B. (2004). The impact of oil on nigeria’s economic policy formulation, Paper presented at the conference on Nigeria, Maximising Pro-poor Growth: regenerating the Socio-economic Database. Overseas development Institute in collaboration with the Nigerian Economic Summit Group.
4. Adeyemo, A.M. (2002). “The oil industry extra-ministerial institutions and sustainable agricultural development: a case study of Okrika LGA of Rivers State. Nigerian Journal of Oil and Politics, vol.2, No.1.
5. Agada, E.G.O. (1994). Heavy Metals Concentration in selected fish fauna of Warri River and its tributaries, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria.
6. Agarwal, A. (1994). A Field of One.s Own: Gender and Land Rights in South Asia, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
7. Agarwal, B. (1997). Bargaining and Gender Relations: Within and Beyond the Household. Feminist Economics, 3(1), 1-51.
8. Aghoghovwia, O.A., Oyelese, O.A. and Ohimain, E.I. (2015). Impacts of Industrialization on Fish Species Composition and Diversity in Warri River, Niger Delta, Nigeria. Journal of Geography, Environment and Earth Science International. 3(3):1-10.
9. Aggrey, M.M. (1983). Gas Flaring and Future life in the Niger Delta. Paper delivered at the National Conference on Petroleum Production in Nigeria, Lagos. 7th – 8th, October.
10. Ake, C. (1996), Democracy and Development in Africa. Spectrum Books Ltd, Ibadan,
11. Akinyele, R.T. (1998). “Institutional Approach to the Environmental Problems of the Niger Delta” in Osuntokun, A (ed) Current issues in Nigerian Environment (Ibadan: Davidson press).
12. Alakpadia, I.J. (2000). Soil characteristics under gas flare in the Niger Delta, Southern Nigeria. Geo-Studies forum 1 (1and 2): 1-10.
13. A.I. (Amnesty International) (2003). Nigeria: Repression of women‘s protests in oil-producing delta region,‖ 1 February. Online:http://web.amnesty.org/library.
14. Alliyu, N. (2007). "How women were devalued from the Beginning" Ijagun Journal of social sciences Published by Faculty of Social Science, Tai Solarin University of Education (TASUD) Ijebu-lgbo.
15. Amadi, S. N. and Tamuno, S. O. (1999). Oil Exploration in Nigeria: Its socio-Economic impact on the oil-bearing communities Tiber, Volume 3, No.1 January – June, 1999.
16. Amakiri , E.N. (2005). Aspects of biology pseudolithus elongatus of bonny estuary, Niger Delta Nigeria. M.Sc. Thesis, Rivers State University of Science and Technology pp.9-99.
17. Amakiri, J.O. and Onofeghara, F.A. (1984). Effects of crude oil pollution on the germination of Zea mays and Capsicum frutescens, Environmental Pollution Series A, Ecological and Biological, 35 (2): 159-167.
18. Ayodele, A. (1985). ‘‘The Conflict in the growth of the Nigeria Petroleum Industry and the Environmental Quality’’ Socio Economic Planning Sciences, 19(5), pp. 295 – 301.
19. Ashton-Jones, N. (1998). The Human Ecosystems of the Niger Delta. Ibadan; Krat books, Ltd.
20. Awosika; L. F. (1995). Impacts of Global Climate Change and Sea Level Rise on Coastal Resources and Energy Development in Nigeria. In: Umolu J.C. (ed.). Global Climate Change: Impact on Energy Development. DAMTECH Nigeria Limited, Nigeria, pp 41-59.
21. Boney, A.D., (1983), Phytoplankton. Edward Arnold, London, UK.
22. Branigan, T. and Vidal, J. (2002). Women: Hands up or strip!,‖ The Guardian, Manchester (UK), July 22.
23. Von Braun, J., Bonis, H., Kumar, S. And Pandya-Lorch, R. (1992). Improving food security of the poor: concept, policy, and programs. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington DC.
24. Brown, J. (2006). “Niger Delta Bears Brunt after 50 Years of Oil Spills.” The Independent on Sunday.
25. www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/niger-delta-bears-brunt-after-50-years-of-oil-spills-421634.html
26. Chambers, R. and Conway, G. (1991).Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: Practical Concepts for the 21st Century. www.smallstock.info/reference/IDS/dp296.pdf.
27. Charlton, S. E. (1997). “Development as History and Process”, In Visvanathan, Nalini, Duggan, Lynn, Nisonoff, Laurie and Wiegersma (eds) The Women, Gender and Development Reader. Halifax, Canada: Fernwood Publishing Ltd. pp.7-16.
28. Chindah, A. C. and Osuamkpe, A. (2008). The fish assemblage of the lower Bonny River, Niger Delta, Nigeria. Afr J Ecol., 32:58–65.
29. Chukwu, L. O., Brown, C. O. and Nwankwo, D. I., (1998), The impact of oil pollution on the hydrochemistry and biota of the tidal creeks and canals in Ondo State. 9th International Conference on the Petroleum Industry and the Nigerian Environment, Abuja, November, 538-576 (1998).
30. Cole, H. A. (1997). Pollution of the Sea and its Effects. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci., 205(1158):17-30.
31. Daniel-Kalio, L.A and Braide, S.A .(2006). “Effect of gas flaring on plants in a tropical fresh water swamp forest in Nigeria”. Ghana Journal of Science, 46:3-11.
32. Daudu, O.D. (2001). Social economic and environmental problems associated with oil spillage in the Niger Delta. (M. Sc Thesis), School of Environmental Sciences, Imo State University Owerri, Nigeria.
33. Davies, R.M., Davies, O.A., Abowei, J.F.N. (2009). The status of fish storage technologies in Niger Delta Nigeria. Am J Sci Res.,1:55–63.
34. De Montclos, M.A. (1994). Le Nigéria. Kurthala, Paris. Cited in Luiselli, L. and Akani, G. C. (2003). An indirect assessment of the effects of oil pollution on the diversity and functioning of turtle communities in the Niger Delta, Nigeria.
35. de Soysa I. and Gleditsch, N. P. (1999). “To cultivate peace: agriculture in a world of conflict", PRIO Report 1/99, International Peace Research Institute, Oslo (PRIO).
36. Dibia, N. H. (1989). Food and Feeding Habits of the Fishes of Tori Creek, Warri B.Sc project, University of Benin, Benin City Nigeria..
37. Dike, K. (1956). Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta, 1830-1885. (Oxford: Claredon Press).
38. Dublin-Green, C.O., Nwankwo, J.N. and Irechukwu, D.O. (1998). Effective regulation and management of the issues in the petroleum industry in Nigeria. Paper presented at: SPE International Conference on Health, Safety and Environment in Oil and Gas Exploration and Production, Jun 7–10, Caracas, Venezuela
39. Eaton, J.P. (1997). The Nigerian tragedy: Environmental Regulation of Transitional corporation and the Human to a healthy environment: Boston University International Law Journal. Vol. 15, 261-307.
40. Ebeku, K.S.A. (2004). Biodiversity conservation in Nigeria: an appraisal of the legal regime in relation to the Niger Delta area of the country. J Environ Law, 16:361-375.
41. Edema, N. E., Obadoni, B. O., Erheni, H. and Osakwuni, U. E. (2009). Eco-phytochemical studies of plants in a crude oil polluted terrestrial habitat located at Iwhrekan, Ughelli north local Government area of delta state. Nat Sci., 7:49–52.
42. Efe, S.I. (2003). Effects of Gas Flaring on Temperature and Adjacent Vegetation in Niger Delta Environment. Int. Journal of Environment., 1(1), 91-101.
43. Egberongbe, F., Nwilo P. and O. Badejo, (2006). Oil Spill Disaster Monitoring Along Nigerian Coastline. TS 16 – Disaster Preparedness and Management, Munich Germany.
44. Egborge, A.B.M. (1994). Water pollution in Nigeria. Biodiversity and chemistry of Warri River. Ben Miller Books Nigeria Limited ISBN 0-999-768.;275-288.
45. Ekanem, I.N. (2001). Effects of Gas Flaring on the Soil, Air and Water Quality of Obigbo North. Centre for Environment and Science Education. Lagos State University.
46. Ekekwe, E. (1983). The Funiwa-5 Oil Blow-out. International Seminar on the Petroleum Industry and the Nigerian Environment, Lagos: NNPC, pp. 64-68.
47. Ekundayo, E.O., Emede, T.O. and Osayande D.I. (2001). Effects of crude oil spillage on growth and yield of maize (Zea mays L.) in soils of midwestern Nigeria. Plant Foods Human Nutrition 56 (4): 313-324.
48. Elis G. (1994). Shell in Nigeria: what are the issues http://www.essentialaction.org/shell/issues.htm
49. Embassy of Nigeria, (2001). Nigeria’s profile: political and economical. Embassy of Nigeria Italy Quarterly Newsletter, 3(2000): 11–12.
50. Emoyan, O.O., Akpoborie, I.A. and Akporhonor, E.E. (2008). The Oil and Gas Industry and the Niger Delta: Implications for the Environment. Journal of Applied Science and Environmental Management. September, Vol. 12(3) pp. 29-37.
51. Emuedo, C.O., Anoliefo, G.O. and Emuedo, O.A. (2007). The Environment, Poverty and Insecurity Nexus: A Perspective on the Niger Delta, Nigeria. In: Chokor, B. A and Ozo, A (eds.), The Environment and Society in Nigeria, Environmental and Behavioural Association of Nigeria (EBAN), University of Lagos. pp. 195-234.
52. Emuedo, C. O. (2010). Oil, the Nigerian State and Human Security in the Niger Delta. Ph. D Thesis, University of Benin, Nigeria.
53. Emuedo, O. A. (2013). Physicochemical and Microbial Diversity in Oil Impacted Mangrove Ecosystem: Implications for Environmental Sustainability in the Niger Delta. Ph. D Thesis, University of Benin, Nigeria.
54. Emuedo , C.and Emuedo, O. (2014).Oil activities, unsustainable environment and the combative reactionism of women in the Niger Delta. Afr. J. Pol. Sci. Int. Relat. 8(1):1-9.
55. Enehoro, A. (1973). Oil Production in Nigeria: Need for early reflection. Government Printer, Lagos.
56. FAO (2006), Agriculture remains principal activity of rural people, Rome, www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2006/1000214/index.html,
57. FAO (Food and Agriculture organisation of the United Nations). (2011). The State of Food and Agriculture. Food and Agriculture Organisation Rome. www.fao.org/docrep/013/i2050e/i2082e00.pdf
58. Fentiman, A. (1996). The anthropology of oil: the impact of the oil industry on a fishing community in the Niger Delta. Soc Justice. Winter: 23.
59. Fernandes, W. and G. Menon (1987). Tribal Women and Forest Economy: Deforestation, Exploitation and Status Change, Indian Social Institute, Delhi.
60. FOS (Federal Office of Statistics) (2004), Socio-Economic Profile of Nigeria
61. GOI (Government of India) (1986). 37th Round Report of Land Holdings . I, Some Aspects of Operational Holdings, Report No. 331, National Sample Survey Organization, Department of Statistics, Delhi.
62. GOI (Government of India) (1987). 37th Round Report on Land Holdings . I, Some Aspects of Household Ownership Holdings, National Sample Survey Organization, Department of Statistics, Delhi.
63. GreenPeace International (1994). Shell Shocked: the Environmental and Social Cost of Living with Shell in Nigeria.
64. Grevy, P., 1995. The Niger Delta in Nigeria: A Pollution Assessment Study. World Bank, Washington D.C.
65. Grown, C. and Sebstad, J. (1989). 'Introduction: towards a wider perspective on women's employment' in World Development Vol 17 No.7
66. Haggblade, S., P. Hazell, and Dorosh, P. (2007). ‘Sectoral Growth Linkages between Agriculture and the Rural Non-farm Economy’. In S. Haggblade, P. Hazell and T. Reardon, (eds), Transforming the Rural Non-farm Economy- Opportunities and Threats in the Developing World. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
67. Hassan C. Olawoye J. and Nnadozie K. (2002), “Impact of International Trade and Multinational Corporations on the Environment and Sustainable Livelihoods of Rural Women in Akwa-Ibom State, Niger Delta Region,” Unpublished M. Sc. “Thesis in the Department of Petroleum Engineering, University of Ibadan.
68. Hofer, J. (1998). Environmental and Health effects resulting from marine bulk liquid transport. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int., 5(4):231-7.
69. Hunt, T. (2000). The politics of bones. Saturday Night. June 24. Article downloaded from web site: http:/mebers.home.net/jtimothy/wiwa.htm.
70. Hutchful E (1985). Oil Companies and environmental pollution in Nigeria. In In Claude Ake (ed.) Political Economy of Nigeria. London and Lagos: Longman. pp.113–140.
71. Ibeanu, O. (1997). Oil, Conflict and Security in Rural Nigeria: Issues in the Ogoni Crisis, Harare: AAPS Occasional Paper Series, Vol. 1, No. 2.
72. Ibhade, A. (2001). We can’t stop Gas Flaring by 2004 Shell Petroleum Dev. Corp. Nigeria. All.africa.com
73. ICG (International Crisis Group), (2006b). ‘Nigeria: Want in the Midst of Plenty’, ICG Africa Report, Number 113, July.
74. IFAD (2002). The rural poor: survival or a better life? The choice between destruction of resources and sustainable development. A Paper submitted by IFAD to the World Summit on Sustainable Development Johannesburg, South Africa, 26 August-4, September.
75. lgube, R.B. (2007). "The Development Paradox: Women and poverty in Nigeria. Nigerian Sociological Review, 2(1):60-61.
76. Imevbore, A. A. and Adeyemi, S. A. (1981). ”Environmental monitoring in relation to pollution and control of oil pollution
77. Inoni, O. E., Omotor, D. G. and Adun, F. N. (2006). The Effect of Oil Spillage on Crop Yield and Farm Income in Delta State, Nigeria. Journal of Central European Agriculture, Vol. 7, No. 1. pp. 41-48.
78. Iyayi, F. (2004). An integrated approach to development in the Niger Delta. A paper prepared for the Centre for Democracy and Development (CDD) Lagos, on Oil and National Development in Nigeria.
79. Jike, V.T. (2004). “Environmental degradation, social disequilibrium, and the dilemma of sustainable development in the Niger Delta of Nigeria. Journal of Black Studies, 34 (5):686-701.
80. KFRI (1980). Studies on the Changing Pattern of Man-Forest Interactions and its Implications for Ecology and Management, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Trivandrum
81. Karl, L.T. and Gary, I. (2003). ‘Bottom of the Barrel: Africa’s Oil Boom and the Poor’, Catholic Relief Services. Available online at www.crs.org/get_involved/advocay/policy_and_strategic_issues/oil_report_one.cfm.
82. Kemedi, D.V. (2005). Fuelling the Violence: Non-State Armed Actors, Militia, Cults, and Gangs in the Niger Delta. Niger Delta Economies of Violence Working Paper. USA, University of California, Berkeley.P. 10
83. Kindzierski, W.D. (2000). “Importance of human environmental exposure to hazardous air pollutants from gas flares,” Environmental Reviews, 8, 41-62.
84. Kingdom, J. (1990). Island Africa. Academic Press, New York.
85. Klett, T. R., Ahlbrandt, T. S., Schmoker, J. W., and Dolton, J. L. (1997). Ranking of the world’s oil and gas provinces by known petroleum volumes. U.S. Geological Survey Open-file Report-97-463.
86. Kutty, M.N. (1987). Site selection for aquaculture: Chemical features of water. Working Paper African Regional Aquaculture Centre, Port Harcourt. ARAC/87/WP/2(9). 53p.
87. Mamby, B. (1999). The price of oil: corporate responsibility and human rights violations in Nigeria's oil producing communities. Human Rights Watch, New York, 1999, ISBN: 156432-225-4. Online:http://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/nigeria/nigeria0199.pdf
88. MacFarland, H. N. (1998).Toxicology of Petroleum Hydrocarbons. Occup. Med., 3(3):445-454.
89. Marland, G., Bnousoden, T.A. and Andres, R. J. (2005). Global, Regional and National CO2 Emission. In Trends: A Compendium of Data on Global Change, Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Centre, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
90. McGinley, M. and Duffy, J.E. (2007). Species diversity. In Encyclo- pedia of Earth, ed. Cutler J Cleveland. Washington DC: Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for Sci- ence and the Environment
91. Messer, E., Cohen, M. and D’Costa J. (1998). Food from peace: breaking the links between conflict and hunger. A 2020 Vision for Food. Agriculture and the Environment, 2020 Brief 50. Washington, D.C: International Food Policy Research Institute.
92. Moffat, D. and Linden, O. (1995). Perception and reality: assessing priorities for sustainable development in the Niger River Delta. Ambio., 24:527–538.
93. Moser, M., Prentice, C. and Frazier, S. (1996). A global Overview of wetland loss and degradation. In proceedings of the sixth meeting of the conference of contracting parties of the Ramsar Convention. Vol.10 March 19-27,Brisbane, Austarlia. Gland, Switzerland : Ramsar Convention Bureau.
94. NDDC (Niger Delta Development Commission) (1999). About Us - NDDC -- Niger Delta Development Commission www.nddc.gov.ng/about%20us.html
95. NDHDR (Niger Delta Human Development Report) (2006), “Poor Human Development in Niger Delta-The State of the Niger-Delta Environment”
96. NDES, (Niger Delta Environmental Survey) (1997). Report Environmental and Socio-Economic Characteristics Phase 1 Report Vol.1. Submitted by the Environmental Resources Managers Ltd., Lagos.
97. NDWC, (Niger Delta Wetland Centre) (1995). Biodiversity management of the Niger Delta region, a field report, 5 June 1995.
98. Nelson, M., Dempster, W.F., Alling, A., Allen, J.P., Rasmussen, R., Silverstone, S. and Thillo, M.V. (2003). Initial Experimental Results from the Laboratory Biosphere Closed Ecological System Facility, Advances in Space Research, 31(7):1721-1730.
99. NNPC (Nigeria National Petroleum Company) (2009). Monthly Petroleum Information (MPI), September. www.nnpcgroup.com/Portals/0/NNPC.../2009/57.September%20%20highlights.pdf
100. NPC (2007). Population census of the Federal Republic of Nigeria: analytical report at the national level. National Population Commission, Abuja, Nigeria. http://www.population.gov.ng/
101. Nwadiaro, C. (1984). The longitudinal distribution of macroinvertebrates and fish in a lower Niger Delta river (River Sombreiro) in Nigeria. Aquat Ecol., 18:133–140.
102. Nwaoguikpe, R. N. (2011). The effect of crude oil spill on the ascorbic acid content of some selected vegetable species: Spinach oleraceae, Solanum melongena and Talinum triangulare in an oil polluted soil. Pakistan J Nutr., 10:274-81.
103. Nwogu, J. (1995) "The rural woman" in Women's Rights Monitor, (A journal of women justice programme) Jan - March, Vol.1 pp: 11
104. Oakley, A. ( 1974) The sociology of Housework. The Pitman Press, Bath
105. Obadina V (2000). “Gas flaring in Nigeria: Matters Arising.” Oil Exploration J., 2:181-193.
106. Obajimi, M.O. (1998). Air Pollution – A Threat to Healthy Living in Nigerian Rural Towns. In Current Issues in Nigerian Environment (Osuntokun, A. ed.) Ibadan: Davidson Press. pp133-147.
107. Obeng, L. (1981) Man’s impact on tropical rivers. In Lock, M.A. and Williams, D.D. (Eds.). Perspectives in running water biology. Plenum press, New York. pp. 205-288.
108. Obi, C. (1999). ‘The Crisis of Environmental Governance in the NigerDelta 1985 1996). Occasional Paper Series 3(3)
109. Obioh, I. B. (1999).”Environmental Impact Assessment of Emissions from Major Facilities at QIT,” Atmospheric Emissions and Dispersion Modeling. Faithlink Consults Nigeria Ltd., PortHarcourt.
110. Odilison, K. (1999). Issues in the purification of Rainwater from Oil Exploration area. Ecol. Environ., 5(3):204 -215.
111. Odjugo, P.A.O. (2007). The impact of climate change on water resources: Global and regional analysis. Indonesia J. Geogr. 39(1):23-41.
112. Odjugo, P.A.O. (2010). General overview of climate change impacts in Nigeria. J. Hum. Ecol. 29(1):47-55.
113. Odogwu, EC. (1981). “Economic and Social Impacts of Environmental Regulations on the Petroleum Industry in Nigeria: Economic and Social Considerations”. A book of seminar proceedings, The Petroleum Industry and the Nigerian Environment. (Lagos: Nigeria National Petroleum Corporation).
114. Ogbe, M.O. (2005). Biological resource conservation: a major tool for poverty reduction in Delta State. A key note address delivered at the Delta State maiden Council meeting on Environment with all stakeholders held at Nelrose Hotel, Delta State, Nigeria, 28th and 29th September,
115. Ogbeibu, A. E. and Ezeunara, P. U. (2002). Ecological Impact of Brewery Effluent on the Ikpoba River. Using the fish communities as Bio-Indicators. J of Aquatic Sci., 17(1): 35-44.
116. Oghifo, B. (2001). Nigeria Loses $6bn yearly to Gas Flaring, Nig. J. of Env. 24 (3), 18-24.
117. Okie-Anie, A. I. (1980). Food and feeding habits of the fishes of Ekurede-Urhobo Creek Warri-B.Sc project supervised by Prof AB.M. Egborge University of Benin, Benin City Nigeria.
118. Okezie, M. (1989). “Water Quality of some surface Rivers in the Nigeria’s Niger Delta.” Environ. Health, 2(2):84-91.
119. Okon, E. J. (2002). “Women and the Niger Delta struggle,” in R. Aduche Wokocha, Development right issues in the Niger Delta, Schaleworths Centre for Democracy and Development, pp. 66-73.
120. Okpowo, B. and Adebayo, S. (2002). “Itsekiri, Ijaw women seize Shell, Chevron Delta facilities,” Vanguard (Lagos) News, August 9. Online:http://www.waado.org/
121. Okumagba, F. M. (1988). Studies of the fish community of Edjeba borrow pit in the intertidal zone of Warri River B.Sc project University of Benin, Benin City Nigeria.
122. Omoweh, D. A. (1998). Shell and Land Crisis in Rural: A Case Study of the Isoko Oil Areas. Scandinavian Journal of Development Alternativesand Areas Studies 17 (2 & 3): 17-60.
123. Omosun, G. Markson, A.A. and Mbanasor, O., (2008), Growth and Anatomy of Amaranthus Hybridus as Affected by Diferrent Crude Oil Concentrations. American-Eurasian Journal of Scientific Research, 3 (1), pp. 70-74.
124. Oniero, S.B.R. and Aboribo, I. (2001). Environmental Pollution: The Hidden Hand of Death in Warri Milieu. A paper presented at a Conference organised by Economic Department, Delta State University Abraka October 2000.
125. Onoge, O. F. (2002). Social Impact of pollution. A paper presented at the Annual conference of Association of General and Private Medical Practitioners on March 2002 at Hotel Presidential Port Harcourt , CASS Newsletter Volume 9, No. 1and 2.
126. Onosode, G.O. (2003). Environment issues and challenges of Niger-Delta. Lagos: CIBN Press.
127. Ordinioha, B. and Sawyer, W. (2008). Food insecurity, malnutrition and crude oil spillage in a rural community in Bayelsa State, south-south Nigeria. Niger J Med., 17:304-309.
128. Orubu, C.O, Odusola, A and Ehwarieme, W. (2004). The Nigerian Oil Industry: Environmental Diseconomies, Management Strategies and the Need for Community Involvement. Journal of Human Ecology, 16(3):203-214.
129. Osam, M.U., Wegwu, M. O. and Uwakwe, A. A. (2011). The Omoku old pipeline oil spill: Total hydrocarbon content of affected soils and the impact on the nutritive value of food crops. Arch Appl Sci Res., 3:514-21.
130. Osuji, L. C. and Nwoye, I. (2007). An appraisal of the impact of petroleum hydrocarbons on soil fertility: The Owaza experience. Afr J Agric Res., 2:318-24.
131. Otukunefor, T V; Biukwu C O (2005): Impact of Refinery Influent on Physico-chemical Properties of a Water body on the Niger Delta. Applied Ecology and Environmental Research. 3(1) 61-72.
132. Patil, M. R. (1976). Pollution effects of industrial wastes in Reverine fishes of India. FAO/IPEC/76. Symposium on the development and utilization of inland fisheries resources 27-29 October, Colombo.p 38
133. Picard, M. T. (1995). “Listening to and Learning from African Women Farmers”. In James, V. U. (ed.), Women and Sustainable Development in Africa, Westport: Praeger.
134. Powell. C. .B (1993). Sites and species of conservation interest in the Central Axis of the Niger Delta (Section C), report submitted to the Natural Resources Conservation Council of Nigeria, Biodiversity Unit, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
135. Powell, A. Marriott, J. and stockman, L., (2005), ‘The Next Gulf: London Washington and the Oil Conflict in Nigeria’, London: Constable and Robinson Ltd.
136. Roberts, F. N. (1999). The State, Accumulation and Violence: The Politics of Environmental Security in Nigeria’s Oil Producing Areas, Ibadan: NISER Monograph Series No. 17.
137. Powell, G.V.N. and White, W.B. (1985). Population trends in some Florida Bay wading birds. Wilson Bull., 101(3):436-457.
138. Rowell, A. and Goodal, A. (eds). (1994). Shell-Shocked. The environmental and social costs of living with Shell in Nigeria. Greenpeace International: Amsterdam.
139. RWI (Revenue Watch Institute) (2010). The Big Survey Results – RWI Watch Index
140. Saro-Wiwa, K. (1999). Is there Life in the Crippled Giant? The World Today. February
141. Schiff, M. and Valdes, A. (1992). “The plundering of agriculture in developing countries”. Washington, D.C: The World Bank,
142. SIDA (1995). Sustainable Livelihoods, SIDA
143. Tetsola, E. A. and Egborge, A.B.M. (1991). Salinity and Seasonality of Fish in Warri River, Nigeria.
144. Turcotte, H. (2002). ‘Under the Oily Surface: Women’s Political Movement Against the State and Oil in Nigeria’. Working Paper. http://www.isanet.org/noarchive/turcotte.html#_ftnref10.
145. Turner, T.E. and Badru, P. (1985). "Oil and Instability: Class Contradictions and the 1983 Coup in Nigeria‖, J. Afr. Marxists, 7(3): 4-34.
146. Turner, T.E. and Oshare, M.O. (1993). Women‘s uprisings against the Nigerian oil industry in the 1980s,‖ Paper presented at the annual conference o f the Canadian Association of Montreal, Canada, Online: www.uoguelph.ca/~tersatu/Counterplanning/c9.htm.
147. Ubani, E. C. and Onyejekwe, I. M. (2013). “Environmental impact analysis of gas flaring in the Niger delta region of Nigeria,” American J. of Scientific and Industrial Research, 4(2):246-252.
148. Uchendu, P. K. (1995). Education and the changing economic role of Nigerian women, Enugu, Nigeria: Fourth Dimension Publication.
149. Udo, R.K. (1970). Geographical regions of Nigeria, Ibadan Heinemann (pp.198-201) Wandrop Engineering Inc. with Mai and Associates (1993). Study of Irrigation potential of Shallow Aquifers in Fadama Area of Borno and Yobe States. A report to Borno State Agricultural Development Programme and Yobe State Agricultural Development progrmame Nigeria (pp.62-66).
150. Udoh, I. A., Stammen, R. M., Mantell, J. E. (2008). Corruption and oil exploration, expert agreement about the prevention of HIV/AIDS in the Niger Delta of Nigeria. Health Educ. Res., 23(4):670-681.
151. Udoh, I.A., Mantell, J.E., Sandfort, T., Eighmy, M. A. (2009). Potential pathways to HIV/AIDS transmission in the Niger Delta of Nigeria: Poverty, migration and commercial sex. AIDS Care, 21(5):567-574.
152. Udoinyang, G.U. (2005). The Effects of Gas Flaring on Sweet Potato Production in the Niger Delta, Nigeria, J. Ecosyst. 10(1):77-86.
153. Uluocha, N. and Okeke, I. (2004) Implications of wetlands degradation for water resources management: lessons from Nigeria. Geo. J 61:151.
154. UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) (2002). Human Development Report.
155. hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-report
156. UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) (2006). Niger Delta Human Development Report, Abuja, Nigeria.
157. UN-ECA (2001). United Nations Economy Commission for Africa. Population, Environment and Agriculture Interlinkages and Sustainable Development.
158. UNU-IAS Report (2004), “Agriculture for peace: promoting agricultural development in support of peace. UNU-IAS.
159. van Dessel, J.P. (1995). The environmental situation in the Niger Delta. Nigeria. Internal Position Paper prepared for Greenpeace Netherlands, Section 5.1.
160. Visvanathan, N., Duggan, L., Nisonoff, L. and Wiegersma, ---. (1997). The Women, Gender and Development Reader. Halifax, Canada: Fernwood Publishing Ltd.
161. Watts, M. (2008). Imperial Oil: The Anatomy of a Nigerian Oil Insurgency. Niger Delta Economies of Violence Working paper No. 17, Institute of International Studies, University of California, Berkeley.
162. Weidemann, C.J. (1987). Agricultural extension for women farmers in Kaduna State, Nigeria, A report to the World Bank, Washington, D. C., April.
163. Williams, J. E. and Best, D. L. (1990a). Measu ring sex stereotypes: A multination study (rev. ed.). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
164. Willink, H., Hadow, G., Mason, P., Shearer, J.B. (1958). Colonial Office Nigeria: Report of the Commission appointed to enquire into the fears of Minorities and the Means of Allaying Them. Presented to Parliament by the Secretary of State for the Colonies by Command of Her Majesty. July. London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office.
165. World Bank. (1995). Defining an environmental strategy for the Niger Delta. Nigeria: World Bank Industry and Energy Operations Division, West Central Africa Department.
166. World Bank, (2000/2001), World Development Report, Washington D.C.
167. World Bank (2007). world development report. Development and the Next Generation. The World Bank. www.worldbank.org.
168. World Bank Document. (2008). Republic of Nigeria, Niger Delta Social and Economic Conflict Analysis. Sustainable Development Department African Region.
169. World Bank. (2009). World Bank GGFR Partners Unlock Values of Wasted Gas, World Bank.
170. Worgu, S.O. (2000), Hydrocarbon Exploitation, Environmental Degradation and poverty in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria, Lund, Sweden: Urhobo Historical Society Luna University, LUMES Programme.
171. World Wildlife Fund, WWF, (2006), “Fishing on the Nigeria River,” Retrieved 10 May, 2007 from HThttp://www.panda.org/newsTH facts/multimedia/video/index.cfm? News ID = 61121
172. Wuraola, A.J. (2001). "Women in Agriculture: Problems & prospects". Nigerian Journal of Gender and Development. 1 (1 & 2), January Edition.
173. Young, A. (1998). Land Resources :Now and for the Future. Cambridge University Press.UK.